GENGHIS KHAN, 800 th anniversary Options

[Tieu Su Phu]

actually genghis khan was born in the modern day inner mongolia, which makes his nationality chinese but ethnicity mongolian

not totally sure tho

What stupid logic is this?

If anything, the Chinese are Mongolian nationals because it was a Mongol empire, not a Chinese empire.

[Mid-Night_Sun]

always respect this man, Ghenghis Khaan, no matter what he was considered.

[~Theta~]

always respect this man, Ghenghis Khaan, no matter what he was considered.

Why? (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/Talktohand.gif) (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/embarassedlaugh.gif)

[Mid-Night_Sun]

simple really, he did shyt i could only do on warcraft 3...

[LiJingYi]

Genghis Khan was an innovator in warfare.

His tactics are very similiar to blitzkrieg, which the Germans used with great success during the second world war.

His tactics were based on mobility, concentration of force, and shock action. The mongols were always outnumbered but they always managed to beat their opponents through superior tactics. They were well-organized and well-lead and each individual warrior was resourceful.

Concepts of Blitzkrieg
---------------------------

Their goal wasn't to fight the enemy head on. Instead, they concentrated their force to attack the weak point of the enemy and drive into their rear and destroy their supply system and occupy key areas.

They also had superior communications. Each unit had an idea of what the other units were doing. Because they were such good horse riders, messages could be exchanged very fast and efficiently.

The spirit of the commanders was purely blitzkrieg and that is, to go as far as they can. In a battle, the mongols always had the initiative. They drove relentlessly forward, always on the attack. Even if they were outnumbered and undersupplies, they kept attacking. This way, morale was always high because the warriors felt like they were winning. The worst thing in war is to be on the defensive because then the soldiers feel anxious and morale falls.

Also, the mongols were an efficient people. They did not need lots of supplies. Each warrior had 2 or 3 spare horses so if one died, they'd have another. If there was no water, they could drink their horse's blood. They were used to travelling long distances without rest and could survive in the harshest weather and conditions.

They were practically unbeatable.

[Bamboos]

Genghis Khan was an innovator in warfare.

His tactics are very similiar to blitzkrieg, which the Germans used with great success during the second world war.

His tactics were based on mobility, concentration of force, and shock action. The mongols were always outnumbered but they always managed to beat their opponents through superior tactics. They were well-organized and well-lead and each individual warrior was resourceful.

Concepts of Blitzkrieg
---------------------------

Their goal wasn't to fight the enemy head on. Instead, they concentrated their force to attack the weak point of the enemy and drive into their rear and destroy their supply system and occupy key areas.

They also had superior communications. Each unit had an idea of what the other units were doing. Because they were such good horse riders, messages could be exchanged very fast and efficiently.

The spirit of the commanders was purely blitzkrieg and that is, to go as far as they can. In a battle, the mongols always had the initiative. They drove relentlessly forward, always on the attack. Even if they were outnumbered and undersupplies, they kept attacking. This way, morale was always high because the warriors felt like they were winning. The worst thing in war is to be on the defensive because then the soldiers feel anxious and morale falls.

Also, the mongols were an efficient people. They did not need lots of supplies. Each warrior had 2 or 3 spare horses so if one died, they'd have another. If there was no water, they could drink their horse's blood. They were used to travelling long distances without rest and could survive in the harshest weather and conditions.

They were practically unbeatable.

Good information.
I read that at that time Mongols population were about less than 1 million.
Furthest point in Europe, Batu khan had only about 30000 Mongols. So they beat German and Polish combined force and Hungarians. I wonder how did they beat China

This post has been edited by Bamboos: Feb 20 2006, 03:44 PM

[Your_Overlord]

Good information.
I read that at that time Mongols population were about less than 1 million.
Furthest point in Europe, Batu khan had only about 30000 Mongols. So they beat German and Polish combined force and Hungarians. I wonder how did they beat China

The Mongols and Genghis didn't make any kind of military inovation in neither tactics or technology. They used the same hit and run tactics using mounted archers that the Xiong-Nu and countless other nomads used before them. Two major factors allowed the Mongols to win many wars.

1) They had a knack for getting people on their side. The conquest of Song would not have been possible if there were not countless number of Song generals, engineers, and administrators that turned their back on their people to side with the Mongols.

2) The Mongols were essentially strong in a time when the world was weak. The only thing that sets them apart of the Xiong-Nu that preceded them was that there was not powerful expansionistic empire like the Han Empire to get in their way. The Xiong-Nu was originally thought to be seemingly invincible, swallowing up countless numbers of rival tribes that occupied the Central Asian steppes. However, what Han Wudi's campaigns with them revealed was that the Xiong-Nu, and pretty much all Tribal condederacy/empires, was politically weak and cannot take big loses and recover fully. By 46 BC, the Southern Xiong-Nu submitted to Han rule. The Huns would spiral downward unable to reachieve the strength and unity the once had as the battlefield loses just keep piling on. Eventually the north Xiong Nu with it's capital would be sacked and destroyed. This administrative weakness is the very reason why most of the Mongol empire crumbled so quickly. In fact, besides the Golden Horde, the rest of the Mongol empire, be it the Yuan Dynasty or Il-Khannate crumbled before it even solidified.

This post has been edited by Your_Overlord: Feb 20 2006, 09:35 PM

[Anda]

You guys need some more reading, ..

The Mongol Empire
13th Century onwards
Author: Imperator Invictus



Heavy Cavalry of the Imperial Guards(IMG:http://i39.photobucket.com/albums/e189/anda_mn/Mongol%20Chinggis%20History/guard.jpg)
Introduction
Perhaps no empire in history has risen so spectacularly as that of the Mongols. In less than 80 years, a band of warriors originally comprised of several men grew to an empire that encompassed all from the Pacific Ocean to the Danube River. This story is about one of the most dramatic series conquests in history and how it was the Mongols themselves who shattered their own invincibility.

In the 12th century, various Turkic and Mongol-Tungusic tribes roamed the steppes of Mongolia. One of these tribes was the Mongols. Around the 1130, the Mongols emerged as a powerful tribe, defeating neighboring nomads and forcing the Jin Empire of Northern China to pay tribute. However, the glory was short lived. In 1160, the Mongol Kingdom was shattered, having been defeated by the neighboring Tartars tribe. The Mongol clans (divisions within a tribe) became disunited and fought amongst themselves for what little there was.


Drawing of Genghis Khan
The leader of the Mongol Kiyad Sub-Clan was Yesugei, who happened to be a descendant of a Khan (chieftain) of the former Mongol Kingdom. In 1167, Yesguei and his wife had a son named Temujin, the one who would become Genghis Khan. When Temujin was nine years old, his father was poisoned by Tartar chiefs. Since he was much to young to rule, his clansmen deserted him. Temujin and his family (7 people total) moved to the most desolate areas of the steppes, eating roots and rodents for living. He had many great adventures, ranging from chasing horse thieves to being captured by enemies. When Temujin was 16, the Merkid Tribe attacked his family and captured his wife. With an army of five men, Temujin could not retaliate on his own, so he turned to one of his father's old friends, Toghrul Khan of the Kereyid Tribe, who in turn, also enlisted a Mongol coalition leader, Jamugha. Together they defeated the Merkids and Temujin recovered his wife. Temujin quickly took advantage of his powerful allies, particularly Jamugha, who was also happened a Mongol and a childhood friend of his, and became a notable figure on the steppes. Temujin and Jamugha took control over most of the Mongol Clans, but that was not enough for Temujin.
According to the Secret History of the Yuan Dynasty, one day while Temujin and Jamugha were riding at the front of the Mongols, Temujin decided to "keep going" while Jamugha stopped to pitch tent. Temujin broke up with Jamugha and the Mongols were split into two groups. Hostilities soon broke out between the two parties. In a clash over a minor event, Temujin was defeated and was forced into exile. However, Temujin returned ten years later and reestablished his position. From there, he embarked on a conquest of the Mongolia that lasted several years. Unfortunately, the details are too great to be perused in this article. In short, by 1204 Temujin had subjugated all that opposed him. He defeated the Tartars, the Kereyids tribe under Toghrul Khan (who eventually betrayed him), the Naimans the Merkids, and Jamugha's Mongol clans





The Empire by 1204
In 1206, Temujin held a great Khuriltai (assembly) on the banks of the Onon River. There, he took the title Chingis Khan. The name Chingis Khan is commonly referred to as Genghis Khan. However, "Genghis" is actually a corrupted variation, and thus for accuracy reason, he will be referred to as "Chingis" Khan. During the Khuriltai of 1206, Chingis Khan decreed the structure and laws for his new Empire. To ensure stability and cooperation between people of the tribes that he united, Chingis Khan installed a military superstructure to integrate all the peoples of his Empire. The population was divided into units responsible for maintaining a certain amount of warriors ready at any given time, thus overriding previous tribal organizations. Furthermore, he decreed many specific laws and created an efficient administrative hierarchy. Chingis Khan created the most advanced government of any steppe nation up to that time. His horde would soon prove to be the most disciplined, the most powerful and the most feared army to ride from the steppes.

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The Khuriltai of 1206. From a manuscript by Rashid ad-Din
The War in Northern China

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Mongol horsemen battle Jin
Warriors in the Mountains
Chingis Khan became emperor of "all who lived in felt tents," but his dreams was to conquer the world. First, he led his men in a series of campaigns against the Xi Xia Empire in western China. In 1209, the Xi Xia capital was threatened, but the Mongols were satisfied with tribute after their camp was unexpectedly flooded. It must be understood that the Mongols were still more interested in and tribute plunder rather than to capture cities. However, as the Empires in China discontinued to pay tribute once the Mongols withdraw, the raids soon turned into conquest.

In 1211, Chingis Khan took 65,000 men and marched against the Jin Empire of Northern China. With the help of the Ongguts, a people who lived on the Jin's northern border, Chingis Khan easily passed through the defenses and marched into Jin territory. He continued a trail of plunder until he met a large force of around 150,000 men, which he defeated. Chingis split his army and launched a multiple pronged attack on the Jin. He and his generals dealt several blows against the Jin, including capturing the strategic Juyong pass. Unfortunately, Chingis was wounded during a siege and withdrew to Mongolia. Subsequently, Jin forces began to recapture territories loss to the Mongols.

In 1213, the Mongols returned after learning that the Jin had refortified their locations. Chingis divided his army into three parts, one under command by himself and the other two, under his sons. The three Mongol armies devastated the Jin Empire, and by 1214, most of the area north of the Huang He (Yellow river) was in Mongol hands. One exception was the city of Chungdu, capital of the Jin Empire. Like other nomadic armies, Chingis Khan's Mongol hordes were entirely cavalry, and the weakness of cavalry forces was the lack of ability to capture fortifications. Chingis realized this weakness and was quick to capture Chinese siege engineers to learn siege tactics. Despite so, Chungdu withstood the Mongols' assaults. Chingis's men became short on supplies and were ravaged by plague, but he tenaciously continued the siege. Accounts describe that every tenth man was sacrificed to be fed to the others. But the siege went on for so long that Chingis had to personally abandon the campaign. He then placed his general Mukali in charge. The Mongols finally entered the city in 1215, but by then, the Jin capital had already been moved south to Kai-feng.



The Empire at 1218

The First Move West - the Conquest of the Kwarazm-Shah Empire


Chingis lost interest in the war in China and instead, turned his attention towards the west. In 1218, he sent his general Chepe westward and conquered the Kara Khitai Empire. But the real issue was with the huge Kwarazmian Empire in Perisa. Hostilities broke out when the Kwarazm Shah attacked a Mongol caravan and humiliated Chingis's ambassadors by burning their beards. Since Chingis sent the ambassadors for the purpose of making peace, he was outraged. Chingis prepared for the largest operation he had yet performed and assembled a force that totaled around 90-110,000 men. The total numerical strength of the Kwarazm shah was two to three times greater, but Chingis' army was better disciplined, and most of all, better led.

In 1219, Chingis's sons Chaghadai and Ogedei set out to attack the city of Utar located east of the Aral Sea. Meanwhile, Chingis' general, Chepe, marched southwestward to protect the left flank during the operation. The main attack, however, was led by Chingis Khan himself, who along with general Subedei, marched through the Kizil Kum desert and outflanked the Kwarazmiam forces. The plan was that the Kizil Kum desert was considered impractical to cross, which made it a great opportunity to surprise the enemy. Chingis and his army disappeared into the desert and suddenly, out of nowhere, he appeared at the city of Bokhara. The city garrison was stunned, and was quickly defeated. Next, Chingis marched towards Samarkand, capital of the Kwarazmian Empire. The magnificent city was heavily fortified and had a garrison of 110,000 men, which vastly outnumbered Chingis' besieging army. The city was expected to be able to hold out for months, but on March 19, 1220 its walls were breached in just ten days. After the fall of Samarkand, the Mongols overran much of the Empire. The destruction was profound. Cities were leveled and populations were massacred. At the city of Merv, accounts described an execution of 700,000. At Samarkand, women were raped and sold into slavery. Devastation was so great that the Kwarazmian Empire itself was nearly wiped away from history. The conquest of the Kwarazm also created another remarkable event. After his defeat, the Kwarazm Shah fled west and Subedei followed in pursue with a force of 20,000 men. The Kwarazm Shah died, however, but Subedei went further. He brought his army north and defeated a heavily outnumbering Russian and Cuman army at the Khalka River. He went further and attack the Volga Bulgars before returning back. As said by the famed history Gibbons, Subedei's expedition was one of the most daring expeditions in history, unlikely to be repeated ever again.



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The Campaign in Northern China and
the Conquest of the Kwarazmian Empire.
During the entire campaign, the Kwarazm Shah failed to assemble an army to fight the Mongols on the battlefield. The Kwarazm strategy relied on its extensive city garrisons that outnumbered the besieging Mongol armies. This of course, failed in every way. The only well organized resistance against the Mongols came from Jalal ad-Din, who after the fall of Samarkand, organized a resistance force in modern day Afghanistan. At Parwan, he defeated a Mongol force led by one of Chingis' adopted son, making it the only Mongol defeat in the entire campaign. Chingis chases after Jalal ad-Din and destroyed his army at the Indus River. The defeat of Jalal ad-Din meant the consolidation of rule of Transoxania. However, the southern parts of the Kwarazmian Empire were left unconquered and later turned into a collection of Independent states. It is said that the Mongols decided not to advance when the sight of a unicorn demoralized their vanguard.
At the age approaching sixty, Chingis' health was at a decline. He sought the legendary Daoist monk Changchun for the exilir to Immortality. His wish did not come true, as Changchun had no magical exilir, but Chingis praised his wisdom and the two became good friends. Following the meeting with the Daoist monk, Chingis returned to the administration side of his objectives. Unlike Attila the Hun and Alexander the Great, Chingis Khan realized the importance of a smooth succession after his death. Before he completed his conquest of the Kwarazmian Empire, he had already carefully chosen his son Ogedei to be his successor. After Chingis returned to Mongolia to finish establish the administration structure of his empire, all the matters were in good order, except for the Tanguts. The Tangut Xi Xia Empire had long been defeated by the Mongols, but became more of a tributary rather than being annexed. However, the Tanguts had stopped complying with terms while Chingis was away. In 1226, Chingis Khan led his army against Xi Xia and captured its capital.

The Death of Chingis Khan

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Chingis Khan
The campaign against the Xi Xia was his last campaign Shortly later in August 1227, Chingis Khan died at the age of 60. The reason remains unsolved, with theories ranging from internal injuries after a hunting accident, to malaria, to prophecies of the Tanguts.

At his death, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Yellow Sea to the Caspian Sea. No other empire in history has seen such an extraordinary expansion in the lifetime of one man. Although Chingis Khan brought much destruction in his conquests, it is clear that he did not intend to commit mass genocide like that of Hitler, even though the death tolls far exceeded anything in history. Chingis's dream was conquest, and whenever surrender was seen, bloodshed was avoided. He was exceptionally respectful to those who supported him, and it was not uncommon for him to befriend defected enemies. In any case, Chingis was a brilliant military strategiest and an exceptionally gifted leader, making him one of the most intriguing figures in history.

The Great Khan Ogedei

After the death of Chingis, the Mongol Empire was divided into four ulus, each given to his four "main" sons. Although these ulus (inheritances) were politically united in the same empire, they would later serve as the basis of future khanates. As said before, Ogedei had already been chosen by Chingis to be his successor. Two years after Chingis' death, Ogedei was officially proclaimed as the ruler of the Mongol Empire. Ogedei took the title of Khakhan ("Great Khan" or "Khan of Khans"), a title used by rulers of the greatest steppe Empires. Chingis however, never officially used this title. Nonetheless, Ogedei ascended with a smooth transition.With the fall of Kiev, the Mongols were victorious in Russia, pulling off the only successful winter invasion of Russia in history. As the result of the Mongols' sweep into Russia, many groups fled across the border and sought refugee in Hungary. Among these were the Cumans and Kipchaks, who were also nomadic cavalrymen like the Mongols. When Batu Khan learned of this he was furious, because they were "his subjects" and thus were not allowed to escape. Whether or not this was the case, Subedei quickly planned a campaign against Europe. The plan was a two-pronged invasion: A flanking force of 20,000 men would be sent into Poland, while he himself (and Batu) will lead the main force of 50,000 men. On March 1241, Subedei and Batu's force dissolved into the Carpathian Mountains, appearing out of nowhere on the other side. But instead of advancing further into Hungary, the Mongols withdrew. Upon seeing this, the Hungarians became somewhat arrogant, and even dismissed the Cumans and Kipchaks, who were also nomadic cavalrymen much like the Mongols. Meanwhile, the northern army stormed into Poland, laid waste to the countryside, and sacked Cracow. On April 9, a European force led by Duke Henry of Silesia crossed into Poland and challenged the 20,000 strong Mongols. The heavily armored European knights were no match for the quickness of the Mongol horsemen, and consequently were defeated. Meanwhile, King Bela of Hungary realized that the Mongol retreat was feigned, and were now actually closing in. King Bela rode out with a force numbering 60-80,000 men and met the army of Batu and Subedei's at the opposing side of the Sajo River. After an indecisive clash at the bridge of the river,

The "Devil's Horsemen"


The Empire at the ascension of Ogedei Khan

The first thing one Ogedei's mind was to subjugate the remaining fragments Kwarazem Empire, which was earlier destroyed by Chingis Khan in 1221, but had been later restored in modern day Azerbaijan. This objected was completed in 1231. The next goal was to complete the conquest of the Jin Empire. The Jin Empire had already lost a great deal of territory to Chingis Khan, and later to Mukali, who was assigned by Chingis to take over as commander in the Northern China theatre. But after Mukali's death in 1223, the Jin began to fiercely fight back. In 1231 a large Mongol army led by Ogedei, the renowned general Subedei, and Tolui (Ogedei's brother) set off against the Jin. After a series of setbacks, the Mongols finally stormed the Jin capital of Kai Feng in 1234 with the aid of 20,000 Song Chinese auxilleries, thus ending the great sedentary Empire that oversaw the steppes for over a century.
While the Ogedei was campaigning in the Jin Empire, he had already ordered the construction of an Imperial capital for the Empire. When the city, named Karakorum, was completed in 1235, it stood as the grandest site in Mongolia. (Karakorum had already been founded long ago by Chingis, but was more of an outpost back then rather than a capital.) Although the city did not grow to an impressive size like the cities of China, the city was impressively diverse and multi-cultural flourished with professional craftsmen, as later remarked by the European traveler Rubruck. Ogedei also made several reforms in the government, of them begin an improvement of the postal system (the Yam).

The Invasion of Russia
Although the Mongols had already made contacts with the Russians a decade earlier in 1222, during Subedei's legendary expedition, the Mongols did not establish any permanent government in those lands. When Chingis Khan died, the northwestern territories of the empire were given to his son, Jochi. One of Jochi's sons was Batu Khan, who inherited the westernmost territories of Jochi's ulus. But Batu's land was small and a great part of the land he was "given," was not yet under Mongol control. In the Khuriltai of 1235, Batu showed his intension to bring these lands under Mongol control. This decision would create an extraordinary conquest that in the end, Batu's army would have traveled five thousand miles! Subedei agreed to go with Batu; and in 1237, the two gathered a force that numbered 120,000 men ready to cross the frozen Volga into Russia.

During winter, the Mongols crossed the Volga River, and afterwards, ridding north into the forests to hide their presence. The first major city they came to was Riazan, which fell after a five-day catapult assault. Then they rode north and captured Kolumna, Moscow, and defeated the Grand Duke of Suzdal, the most powerful force in the northern half of Russia. From there the Mongols advanced towards Novgorod. However, the siege was abandoned after the marshes proved too frustrating to travel through. Although Novgorod became one of the only major cities in Russia to avoid the Mongol conquest, they would keep a friendly relation with the Mongols by paying tribute. After the frustration at Novgorod, Batu and Subedei rode south and attacked the city of Kozelsk, which valiantly held off the Mongols and even successfully ambushed a Mongol vanguard - a feat rarely ever been done. Kozelsk held off for seven weeks, and after it finally fell, the entire population was slaughtered in a way so great that the Mongols named it the City of Woe. The last obstacle in Russia was the great city of Kiev, often called the "Mother of all Russian cities". Because Kiev was so important in Eastern Europe, the Mongols even tried to take it undamaged. Prince Michael of Kiev did indeed realize the inevitable capture of Kiev. Unfortunately, he fled, and his second in command was a tenacious officer and decided to resist. When the Mongols did storm the city, the only major structure that was not destroyed was the Cathedral St Sophia.

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The Invasion of Europe


The Mongol Invasion of Europe
With the fall of Kiev, the Mongols were victorious in Russia. Interestingly, this was the only successful large-scale winter invasion of Russia in history. As the result of the Mongols' incursion into Russia, many groups fled across the border and sought refugee in Hungary. Among these were the Cumans and Kipchaks, who were also nomadic cavalrymen like the Mongols. When Batu Khan learned of this he was furious, because they were "his subjects" and thus were not allowed to escape. Whether or not this was the case, Subedei quickly planned a campaign against Europe. The plan was a two-pronged invasion: A flanking force of 20,000 men would be sent into Poland, while he himself (and Batu) would lead the main force of 50,000 men. On March 1241, Subedei and Batu's force dissolved into the Carpathian Mountains, appearing out of nowhere on the other side. But instead of advancing further into Hungary, the Mongols withdrew. Upon seeing this, the Hungarians became somewhat arrogant, and even dismissed the Cumans and Kipchaks, who could've provided valuable cavalry support. Meanwhile, the northern army stormed into Poland, laid waste to the countryside, and sacked Cracow. On April 9, a European force led by Duke Henry of Silesia crossed into Poland and challenged the 20,000 strong Mongols. The heavily armored European knights were no match for the quickness of the Mongol horsemen, and consequently were defeated. Meanwhile, King Bela of Hungary realized that the Mongol retreat was feigned, and were now actually closing in. King Bela rode out with a force numbering 60-80,000 men and met the army of Batu and Subedei's at the opposing side of the Sajo River. After an indecisive clash at the bridge of the river, Subedei brought a contingent south and crossed the river without the Hungarians noticing. When Subedei appeared on the other side, the Hungarians were dumbstruck. Soon Batu broke across the bridge and the Hungarian army was surrounded.

The two major victories by two separate Mongol armies in a period of mere days apart show the brilliancy of Subedei's generalship. In one month, Poland and Hungary were defeated. Days after the victory at Sajo River, (the name of the battle is also known as Mohi) the two Mongol forces joined and laid waste to the remaining Hungarian forces, capturing cities such as Pest. The grand and splendid city of Gran was captured on Christmas day.
By early 1242, when Batu considered to go even farther into Europe, he suddenly received news from Mongolia that the Great Khan Ogedei had died. This news was significant. Batu's concern was the possibility of his personally disfavored Guyuk Khan receiving the title of Great Khan. Since Batu had conquered so much land, the political instability in Mongolia would provide trouble. He decided to return to Russia and politically establish his domains to avoid any trouble. As a result, the Mongol army entirely withdrew from Poland and Hungary.

Europe was abandoned and Batu returned to the north of the Caspian Sea. There, he established his capital at Sarai Batu (Old Sarai), and transformed his "inherited lands" into a kingdom, or Khanate. Batu's Khanate became known as the Blue Horde. Batu's two brothers, Orda and Shiban, who also participated in the campaign also formed their Khanates. Orda's Khanate became known as the White Horde, located east to Batu's Blue Horde. Because Batu and Orda were both member of the Golden Clan, the two Khanates were in reality, depencencies of one another, and became known together under the name of "The Golden Horde". Shiban's Khanate, however, is obscurely known. Although the Khans of the Golden Horde would continue to recognize the superiority of the Great Khan and "remain" as part of the Mongol Empire for four more decades, in reality the Golden Horde (and all the other Khanates that would eventually form), had political independence at will.


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Teutonic Knights vs Mongol heavy Cavalry at Liegnitz. (Painting by Angus McBribe)

The Great Khan Guyuk


The Empire c. 1246
Guyuk succeeded as Khakhan (or Kha'an - Great Khan) in 1246. Tensions between Batu and Karakorum soared into heights. Fortunately, Guyuk's died in 1248, just two years after his enthronement. Guyuk's early death prevented a major civil war, but the weakness of the Mongol Empire had been foreshadowed. It would be civil disunity that would ultimately bring the Mongol Empire down. The reign of Guyuk achieved little; let alone the disunity in the Empire that it caused.

The Mongol Crusaders - The Great khan Mongke

The next Khakhan, Mongke, was elected in 1251. Upon begin crowned Khakhan, Mognke announced his ambitions to continue the line of conquests that was halted during Guyuk's reign. The first was to conquer the Song (Sung) Empire, the last of the three pre Chingis Empires in "China" free from Mongol control. This and the long series of campaigns against the Song will be examined later. His other motive was to destroy the presence of the Assasins (Ismailis), who have been threatening the governors of the western provinces, and bring the Abbasid Caliph into submission. Thus, this campaign would travel through Persia and into Mesopotamia and towards the Middle East.

The Mongols had seen a limited incursion into the Middle East when Baiju conquered the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum in 1243. However, further campaigns into Baghdad were canceled at that time due to the instability of the newly acquired Asia Minor and the political troubles in Karakorum. Mongke's proposed expedition, however, was planned to be a great one, and indeed it would live up to its name. While Mongke Khan was to personally lead the attack against the Song, he entrusted his brother, Hulegu, to lead the Mongol "Crusade."

Hulegu's "Crusade"

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Hulegu's campiagn
In 1253, Hulegu departed from Mongolia to begin the largest operation since Batu's invasion of Russia. It was also the most advanced Mongol army yet to campaign, with the latest in world siege weapon technology, and a group of experienced lieutenants. Hulegu's expedition attracted great enthusiasm among Christian communities, including a number of Georgian and Alan volunteers. Hulegu's army marched slowly compared to Mongol standards, taking three years to finally reach Persia. He made his way into Khurasan (region in Persia), annexing the local dynasty in the area. The first of the primary objectives was completed with the capture of the Assassins' (the Hashashins) fortress of Gerdkuh on the south side of the Caspian Sea. Hulegu then advanced west and captured Alamut, forcing the Assassins' Grand Master to surrender.



Mongols Besiege a city in the Middle East
After the capture of Alamut, Hulegu marched toward the grand prize of Baghdad. The Caliph of Baghdad happened to be an incompetent military commander, one foolishly ignorant of the Mongol threat. When the Caliph decided to prepare for a siege, Hulegu was already closing in. Upon his arrival, a force of 20,000 cavalrymen rode out to confront the Mongols. This force was easily defeated, making the siege inevitable. Baghdad held out for a week until its east walls were breached. On February 13, 1258, the city surrendered and a devastating slaughtered ensued. The treasure was looted, the magnificent mosques were destroyed, and the populated was massacred. (An interesting thing is that all the Christian inhabitants in the city were spared.) Accounts claim a slaughter of 800,000 men. This may have been an exaggeration, as the city was later revitalized to an extent. However, there is no doubt that the greatest city in the Middle East had forever lost its glory and that there is no doubt the fall of Baghdad was one of the greatest blows to Islam.

Egypt is saved

Hulegu then withdrew almost his entire army except a minor force of 15,000 men to his general Kedburka to keep an eye on the horizon. Meanwhile, the Mameluks were expecting the full fury of the Mongols, and gathered a large force of 120,000 men. But Hulegu had already withdrawn. Thus, the Mameluks only met Kedburka's 25,000 (15,000 Mongols and 10,000 allies) men at Ain Jalut. The heavily outnumbered Mongols lost in a battle that has traditionally been exaggerated symbolize the dramatic halt of Mongol expansion. In truth, it was the death of Mongke Khan that really saved Egypt, much like how the death of Ogedei Khan saved Europe.

Mongke's death, Civil war and Kublai Khan

The death of Mongke Khan in 1259 was a significant turning point in the history of the empire. In the West, it meant that Hulegu's campaign was at an end. The political envoironment in the East became unstable, and thus, Hulegu had to settle down to claim his land. Hulegu Khanate in Persia became known as the Il-Khanate. However, there was even more problems. Hulegu's campaing agaisnt the Caliph bitterly angered the Muslim Khan Berke of the Golden Horde. With throne of the Great Khan in vacancy, unable to regulate peace, civil war erupted between Berke and Hulegu. Interestingly, this civil war also forced Berke to abandon his plans to ravage Europe once more.

In the East, two brothers competed fiercely for the throne of the Great Khan. One year after Mongke Khan's death in 1259, Kubilai Khan was elected Khakhan in a Khuriltai. Shortly later, his brother, Ariq Boke, was also elected Khakhan at a rivaling Khuriltai. The civil war lasted until 1264 (parallel to the civil war in the west), when Kubilai was victorious over Ariq Boke, thus becoming the undisputed Khakhan. This civil war had an implied meaning. During the war, Kublai Khan based himself in China while Ariq Boke based himself in Karakorum. Kublai Khan's victory implied that China was becoming more over important to the Empire than Mongolia, symbolizing the sinification of the Mongols in the East.

To the Empire as a whole, these years of the civil war meant an end to cohesion. A bitter divide now existed in the west, and the in the East, the Great Khan became only interested in China. Thus, one may argue that the death of Mongke Khan in 1259 meant the end of the "Mongol Empire", (although the Mongol Empires would continue to thrive invidually). However, because Kublai Khan later became so great of a ruler, some prefer to have the timeframe of the "Mongol Empire" inclusive until the end of Kublai's Reign, who did hold nominal power over the other Khanatse.

Kublai Khan The Conquest of the Song

The conquest of the Song Empire, sometimes called the "true" Chinese dynasty as opposed to the Jurchen-established Jin Dynasty, began during Mongke Khan's reign. The Song Empire was the most formidable and most geographical challenging Empire to conquer due to its tough infastructure and mountainous terrain. While Mongke Khan fought in the north, Kublai Khan (who then had not yet become Khan) took a well-sized force, marched through Tibet, and attacked the Song Empire from the south. His men were eventually depleted, however, and he had to withdraw. However, Mongke Khan was able to pull off a series of success until he fell to disease contacted during war. The death of Mongke Khan and the subsequent civil war between Kublai and Ariq Boke caused a stall in campaigning for four years. In 1268, the Mongols were ready for another major assault. Kublai Khan assembled a large naval force and defeated a Song force of 3000 ships. Following the naval victory was the successful capture of Xiang Yang in 1271, which gave confidence in the war. However, the war could not accelerate to the speed of the previous conquest. Finally in 1272, a Mongol army led by Bayan, a general who served under Hulegu, crossed the Yangtze River and defeated a large Song army. The tide began to clearly favor the Mongols as Bayan then continued a line of victories cumulating in the capturing of the Song capital of Hangzhou after an exhausting siege. The Song royal family, however, was able to escape. The final defeat came in 1279 in the form of a naval battle near Guangzhou, where the last Song Emperor was killed. 1279 marked the date of the Song Dynasty's end.



Kublai Khan
Victory in China was complete and the "Mongol Empire" enjoyed its time of zenith. However, a lot had changed by now in the lifestyles of the Great Khans. Unlike his grandfather, Kubilai Khan retreated from the harsh life of being a nomad and adopted the confortable life of a Chinese Emperor. As Kublai Khan became more into the Chinese way of life, the Mongol government followed as well. In 1272, seven years before the defeat of the Song, Kublai adopted the Chinese dynastic title of Yuan - taking the traditional path of legitimizing oneself as the rightful ruler of China. Being both the Yuan emperor of China and the Great Khan of the Mongols, the Yuan dynasty and the Mongol Empire are often counted as the same during the reign of Kublai. Besides making his empire Chinese, Kublai moved the Mongol Imperial capital from Karakorum to modern day Beijing. The new capital at Beijing was named Ta-tu. The Mongol Empire experienced another dramatic change - although in a different way. Defying the style of pervious conquests, Kublai launched two naval invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281. Both of these were ill fated and were destroyed by the "Kamikaze" typhoons. Kublai also launched a series of campaigns into southern Asia. In Burma, the Mongols were victorious, but eventually abandoned the campaign. In Vietnam, a temporary Mongol victory was turned around into defeat. A naval expedition to Java was unsuccessful as well, being forced to withdraw. Far more serious was the insurrection of Kaidu, decendent of the Ogedeites, who formed a rebel Khanate in Western Mongolia. Kublai's reign would not see the end of this civil war




The Mongol Empires c. 1280

Final Collapse of Unity

Despite the few military fiascos taken by Kublai, there is no doubt that Kublai Khan's reign was the zenith of Mongol rule as a whole. The dominion stretched from China to Mesopotamia to the Danube to the Persian gulf - a size five times that of Alexander's Empire. Although much of the land suffered great destruction during the conquests, the superior organized Mongol government that followed gradually made this up. Economic activity flourished and trade spread throughout the gigantic empire. Despite the formation of the Khanates in the other sections of the Empire, the authorities of the Great Khan Kublai were recognized in all corners of the Empire. Kublai enjoyed his position as one of the powerful rulers of all time, being Emperor of an Empire that ruled most of the known world. The famed Italian traveler Marco Polo described Kublai as the "greatest lord there will ever be".

While Kublai Khan was still recognized as the ruler of the Mongols, he himself did not seem to bother with the rest of the Empire outside of his personal dominions. The other Khanates, as well, began to develop a better sense of self-governance. The Mongols lost unity and no longer did they act as a unified government. Of course, this disunity had a long buildup, but once Kublai Khan died, the potentials for disunity finally broke loose. When Kublai Khan died in 1294, his successor would continue to hold the title of "Yuan Emperor", but there would be no more "Great Khan of the Mongols." The Mongols discontinued to have a universal ruler and thus, one could say the death of Kublai Khan meant the end of the Mongol Empire. This is somewhat ironic, as the Mongol Empire ended immediately after its golden age. Although the Mongol Empire had eased to exist as a whole, Mongol power remained in the form of the various independent Khanates:

The Five Khanates



The Empires
(A revision for content clarification has been planned for this section of the article.)
The Yuan Dynasty in the Far East (also the Khanate of the Great Khan Kublai) continued their rule in China. However, after Kublai, there were no skilled rulers. A series of internal strife followed by natural disasters triggered a major rebellion. In 1368, the Yuan dynasty overthrown and was replaced by the Ming Dynasty under the rule of Ming Hong-wu.

The Il-Khanate of Persia (founded by Hulagu in 1260) did not fare so well at start, struggling with the economy and another embarrassing defeats by the Mameluks. However, under Ghaza Il-Khan, the Il-Khanate regained military superiority and began an economical surge that continued until the reign of Abu Sa'id, where during his rule, Persia enjoyed a great deal of Prosperity. However, Abu Sa'id did not have a successor, in 1335, the Il-Khanate received the same irony as the Mongol Empire -collapsing immediately after its golden age. The lands of the Il-Khanate were eventually reunited under Timer Lenk (Tamerlane) into the "Timurid" Empire.

The Golden Horde in Russia enjoyed a period of fairly good economic activity. The Khanate allied with the Mameluks and officially turned Muslim during the reign of Ozbeg Khan. But similar to the Il-Khanate, the line of Golden Horde Khans eventually came to a no successor situation in the mid 4th century. The Golden Horde collapse and fell into anarchy. It was later reunited but fell once again became fractured. This story, however, is too complex to pursue here.

The Chaghadai Khanate grew directly out of the ulus inherited by Chingis's son Chaghadai. The Chaghadai grew steadily until the rise of Tamerlane, which destroyed its power. After Tamerlane's death, the Khanate remained as a minor state until the Qing Dynasty of China annexed it in the 18th century.


(IMG:http://i39.photobucket.com/albums/e189/anda_mn/Maps/image3.jpg)
Full map of the Mongol Empire


Legacy of the Mongol Conquests

One may see the Mongol Empire as a gigantic political force, bringing almost the entire continent of Asia under the control of one Great Khan. The Mongol government was a superior one, and thus the whole continent became interconnected. During the Mongol Empire, one was guaranteed safety in travel throughout the entire empire. Thus, the Empire created a huge economical boom and a great exchange of culture and knowledge throughout the entire world. As a result of the Mongol conquests, the Silk Road was reopened and the route from Europe to Asia was no longer thought to be impassable. A great deal of knowledge reached Europe, including art, science, and gunpowder; which greatly contributed in bringing Western Europe out of the dark ages. Likewise, in Asia, we saw an exchange of ideas between Persia and China.

The Mongols obviously had a direct on the political situation of the world. China was once again united under a single ruler. Russia was separated from the rest of Europe, but was no longer a disunited feudalistic society. The Mongols ended the short-lived Kwarezmian Empire, and brought the fall of the Abbasid Caliph and dealt a great blow to Islamic culture. Although the Mongols did indeed bring a huge list of deaths and destruction, the economical boom that followed is obviously something not to be overlooked. One of the only ones that clearly did not benefit from Mongol conquest was Poland and Hungary, and that was because the Mongols withdrew and did not set up a revitalizing government. In conclusion, the Mongol Empire is one of great significance; for the better or worse of the world, it is not one that is to be forgotten.

Today the Mongols and their great leaders are sometimes remembered in two different: as valiant heroes who conquered vast lands against all odds to build a mighty empire or as ruthless conquerors who destroyed everything in their path. The latter is particularly interesting because it is probably more of a natural consequence of the sheer extent of the Mongol conquests rather than the actual creulty of the Mongols since conquerors like Caesar or Alexander the Great were just as cruel as Chingis Khan. Furthermore, the Mongols did not destroy everything in their path. In the end, civilization was rebuilt and benefited greatly from the newly established global economy. In any case, the Mongols should be remembered as a significant player in world history. The significance of their conquests surpasses what any history article can describe...

List of Great Khans
1206-1227 Chingis / Genghis Khan
1229-1241Ogedei Khan (Khakhan) - Son of Chingis
1246-1248 Guyuk Khan (Khakhan) - Son of Ogedei
1251-1259 Mongke / Mengku Khan (Khakhan) - Cousin of Ogedei
After the death of Mongke, in 1260, two Khakhans were elected by rivaling Khuriltais (assemblies): Ariq-Boke (brother of Kubiliai), who ruled from Karakorum, and Kubilai, who ruled from China. Kubilai defeated Ariq-Boke in 1264 to secure sole leadership.
1264-1294 Kubilai Khan (Khakhan) - Brother of Kubilai
No ruler was elected after Kubilai
*Khakhan (also Kaghan, Haqan, meaning "Khan of Khans"): Title used by Khans of the greatest steppe Empires, including the Mongol Empire. This title was officially used by all Khans of the Mongol Empire except for Chingis Khan.
Regents (Temporary rulers) during the election interludes
1227-1229 Tolui - Son of Chingis, Father of Kubilai and Mongke
1241-1246 Toregene Khatun - Wife of Ogedei, mother of Guyuk
1248-1251 Oghul Ghaymish

Chronology
1167? Brith of Temujin (Genghis/Chingis Khan)
1206. The great Khuriltai (assembly) of
1206. Temujin takes the title of "Chingis Khan"
1209-10. Campaign against the Xi Xia.
1211, 1213, 1215. Campaigns against the Jin Empire.
1214. Mongols lay siege to the Jin capital of Zhongdu (modern day Beijing), which falls in
1215. Areas north of the Huang He becomes under Mongol control. Jin capital is moved south to Kai-feng.
1218. Conquest of the Kara Kitai. Mongols raid Korea.
1220. Mongol caravan and ambassadors are murdered by the Khwarazmians. War against Khwarazm (Persia) begins. Capture of Bokhara and Samarkand.
1221. Subedei begins expedition around the Caspian Sea and into Russia.Jalal ad-Din rises in Persia and challenges the Mongols. Jalal ad-Din defeated at the battle of Indus. War with the Kwarazmian Empire concludes.
1226. Final campaign against the Xia Xia.
1227. Genghis Khan dies. War with the Xi Xia concludes.
1228. Ogedei Khan ascends throne and becomes Khakhan (Great Khan)
1235. First serious invasion of Korea.
1234. War against the Jin Empire concludes.
1235. Construction of Karakorum, Mongol imperial capital
1237. Batu Khan and Subedei begin the conquest of Russia.
1241. War in Korea concludes
1241. Batu Khan and Subedei invades and conquers Poland and Hungary. Defeat of the Europeans at Liegnitz and Sajo River. Death of Ogedei Khan
1242. Upon hearing the death of Ogedei Khan, Batu khan withdraws from Europe to secure his conquests in Russia. Political establishment of the Golden Horde Khanate, with Batu as its first Khan.
1246-8. Reign of Guyuk Khan
1251. Election of Mongke Khan as Khakhan.
1252. Invasion of the Sung Empire of south China begins.
1253. Hulegu begins his campaign into the Middle East.
1258. Hulegu captures Baghdad. Death of the last Abassid Caliph.
1259. Death of Mongke Khan.
1260. Hulegu withdraws from Syria upon hearing the death of Mongke, saving the Muslims from further invasion. A minor force left behind is defeated by the Mameluks at Ain Jalut. Hulegu settles in Persia and creates the Il-Khanate, with him becoming the first Il-Khan.
1260. Disagreement on succession of the Mongol throne leads to civil war between the two candidates, Kubilai and Ariq-boke.
1264. Kubilai is victorious over Ariq-boke, becomes Khakhan.
1266. Kubilai builds a new imperial capital at Tatu (modern day Beijing)
1271. Journey of Marco Polo begins.
1272. Kubilai adopts the Chinese dynastic title of Yuan. Kubilai becomes both the Khakhan of the Mongol Empire and the "Yuan Emperor" of China.
1274. First invasion of Japan. The fleet is destroyed in a storm.
1276. Hangzhou, capital of the Sung Empire, falls to the Mongols.
1277-8. Mongols invade Burma, installs a puppet government.
1279. Death of the last Sung emperor during a naval battle.
1294. Death of Kubilai. The Yuan dynasty continues but the Mongol Empire ceased to have a Khakhan. In name, the Mongol Empire ends, as it fractures into four clearly distinct kingdoms.
1335. Death of Abu Sa'id. The Il-khanate failed to produce a successor and becomes fractured. The Il-khanate ends.
1359. As with the Il-khanate, the line of rules of the Golden Horde ended and the khanate failed to produce a successor. The Golden Horde becomes more of a puppet government.
1330. Timur Lenk (Tamerlane) is born in Samarkand. Reunites Persia and defeats both the Russians and the Golden Horde. Builds the so-called Timurid Empire.
1368. Yuan rule in China ends.
1370. Death in Karakorum of Toghon Temur, last Yuan emperor.
1405. Timur Lenk (Tamerlane) dies. The Timurid Empire, referred to as the last great nomadic power, ends. Persia and the Golden Horde are again without a clear ruler. The Golden Horde fractures and becomes separate states.
1502. The Russians overthrow Mongol rule in Russia

The Mongol War Machine - an Overview

The Mongol (or Turkish-Mongol, actually) army was probably the most disciplined, well led, and effective fighting force ever until well into the age of gunpowder. Being "hunters all their lives," steppe nomads were masters of the horsemanship and were deadly with their composite bow. Unlike Roman Legionnaires or hoplites who had to be trained in camps or academies, nomadic warriors were already skilled warriors. Nomadic warriors were well renown for their horse archers, being able to hit targets accurately while galloping on the horse. But the "Mongol" army was not merely a steppe army.


Mongol Trebuchet. (IMG:http://i39.photobucket.com/albums/e189/anda_mn/Mongol%20Chinggis%20History/g_siege1.jpg)
The Mongols originally had no knowlege of Siege warfare, but later became masters of it through careful acceptance of new technologies
When Chingis Khan rose to power, he set a standard of organization, discipline, equipment, and most all the mentality to fight as a group. Chingis organized his army into a decimal system, with a commander for every series of 10 units elected by the troops. Military tactics were rehearsed well in preparation and each warrior was expected to know precisely what to do from the signals of the commanders, which took form in flaming arrows, drums, and banners. The Mongol horde had extremely high discipline. Failure to maintain equipment, and desertion in battle were punishable by death. The combination of skill, discipline, tactics, and some of the most brilliant commanders in history shocked all who fought against them. When the western knights fought the Mongol horsemen, they were utterly destroyed, unable to match the Mongol horde in any category. On the battlefield, the Mongols were capable of a wide array of tricks. Being an army of entirely cavalry, the Mongols could easily dictate the positional flow of the battle, particularly feigned retreats, which could easily fool an enemy into a foolish charge, and encirclement, which is difficult for the enemy to uphold due to the speed and cavalry strength of the Mongols.
Siege machines and gunpowder learned from the Chinese and Persians played an important role in the horde. Besides their use in sieges, siege weapons were widely deployed on the battlefield. The Mongols mastered the use of quick assemble catapults that could be transported on horseback and assembled on the battlefield. Learned from the Chinese, the Mongols developed gunpowder weapons such as smoke grenades (used to hide movement) and firebombs. Both of these contributed to the Mongol success in the invasion of Europe. The Mongol's acceptance and adaptations to such new methods meant that they were not only an army of the most traditionally skilled warriors, but also an army with the best technology the world has to offer.

[RiverPlate4Life]

http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20060219/lf_af...an_060219214604

Are the Chinese trying to claim Genghis Khan as a Chinese guy? (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/embarassedlaugh.gif) 2

Say it ain't so (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/embarassedlaugh.gif) 2


It's like dejavu~

[chilli21]

simple really, he did shyt i could only do on warcraft 3...

sad thing is his name is less famous than Alexander the Great.

[qlittlemon]

http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20060219/lf_af...an_060219214604

Are the Chinese trying to claim Genghis Khan as a Chinese guy?  -laugh2

Say it ain't so  -laugh2
It's like dejavu~

Genghis Khan WAS a Mongol NEVER a Chinese,his family's reign in China has always been accurately recorded as YUAN Dynasty.

[qlittlemon]

http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20060219/lf_af...an_060219214604

Are the Chinese trying to claim Genghis Khan as a Chinese guy?  -laugh2

Say it ain't so  -laugh2
It's like dejavu~

Genghis Khan WAS a Mongol as much as Confucius was Chinese NOT CHOSUN.-laugh2

This post has been edited by qlittlemon: Feb 21 2006, 12:38 AM

[chilli21]

Genghis Khan WAS a Mongol NEVER a Chinese,his family's reign in China has always been accurately recorded as YUAN Dynasty.

it's ok, no one here is claiming genghis khan a chinese. even if the ccp claims him to be chinese for whatever reasons, everyone in this world knows he's not just like how some korean scholars claiming confucius a chosun. (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/icon_wink.gif)

[Hawaii]

Genghis Khan WAS a Mongol NEVER a Chinese,his family's reign in China has always been accurately recorded as YUAN Dynasty.

Genghis Khan was not a Chinese but his grandson Kublai Khan was a Chinese emperor.

[qlittlemon]

sad thing is his name is less famous than Alexander the Great.

Today's Mongols are still in NOMADIC AGE,they don't have the big image promoting PR machine like Hollywood.

This post has been edited by qlittlemon: Feb 21 2006, 12:43 AM

[Anda]

sad thing is his name is less famous than Alexander the Great.

YOU NEED TO READ EVEN MORE (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/beerchug.gif)

Genghis Khan (c. 11621–August 18, 1227) (Cyrillic: Чингис Хаан, Чингис хан), (also spelled as Chinggis Khan, Jenghis Khan, Chinggis Qan, etc.), (pronunciation (help·info) ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ), born with the name Temüjin (Тэмүүжин), was a 13th century Mongol military leader and conqueror. More specifically he was the founder and Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous empire, from 1206 until his death in 1227. He united the Central Asian confederations at the same time and later started the Mongol Dynasty that persisted for centuries later on with his family.

In modern Mongolia Genghis Khan is regarded as the father of the nation of Mongolia, for his historical role in uniting the Mongol confederations and therefore giving them a common identity and for his contributions in directing the effort in creating a writing system for the Mongolian language. Throughout the world, Genghis Khan is regarded as one of the most recognizable and one of the most brutal military leaders against his enemies.

Contents [hide]
1 Birth and early life
1.1 His family
2 Uniting the Central Asian confederations
2.1 From Temüjin to Genghis Khan
3 Military campaigns
3.1 First war with Western Xia
3.2 Conquest of the Kara-Khitan Khanate
3.3 Invasion of Khwarezmid Empire
3.4 The defeat of the Kievan Rus
3.5 Second war with Western Xia and Jin Dynasty
4 Mongol Empire
4.1 Politics and economics
4.2 Military
4.2.1 Notable military generals in Mongol military
4.3 Division of the Empire into Khanates
4.4 After Genghis Khan
5 Death and burial
6 Genghis Khan's personality
7 Perceptions of Genghis Khan
7.1 Genghis Khan as a hero
7.1.1 In Mongolia
7.1.2 Consequences of Mongol conquest
7.1.2.1 On civilians
7.1.2.2 On property and cultural treasures
7.2 Genetic argument
8 Name and title
9 Short timeline
10 Notes
11 External links
12 References
12.1 Primary Sources
12.2 Further reading



[edit]
Birth and early life
Little is known about his early years, but Temüjin was born sometime around 11621 in Hentiy, Mongolia. His birthplace was most likely the mountainous area of Burhan Haldun. He was the eldest son of Yesükhei, a tribal chief of the Kiyad. Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and his mother, Hoelun, was of the Olkhunut tribe of the Mongol confederation.

Based on legends and later writers, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father delivered him to his future wife's family when he was only nine. He was supposed to live there until he reached the marriageable age of 12. Shortly thereafter, his father was poisoned by the neighboring Tatars while returning home. This gave Temüjin a claim to be the clan's chief, though his clan refused to be led by a boy and soon abandoned him and his family. For the next few years, he and his family lived the life of impoverished nomads, surviving primarily on wild fruits, marmots and other small game. In one incident, Temüjin murdered his half-brother Bekhter over a dispute about sharing hunting spoils. Despite being severely reproached by his mother he never expressed any remorse over the killing. In another incident in 1182, he was captured in a raid by his former tribe, the Ta'yichiut, and held captive. The Ta'yichiut planned on executing Temüjin, but he escaped with help from a sympathetic captor. His mother, Hoelun, taught him many lessons in survival in the harsh political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances with others, a lesson which would shape his understanding in his later years. Around this time, Jelme and Borchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined him. They, along with his brothers, provided the manpower needed for early expansion and diplomacy for Temüjin.

Around the age of 16, Temüjin married Börte of the Konkirat tribe. Later she was kidnapped in a raid by the Merkit tribe, and Temüjin called on his friend and later rival, Jamuka, and his protector, Wang Khan of the Kerait tribe, for aid and rescued her. Börte's first child, Jochi, was born about nine months after she was freed from the Merkit, leading to questions about the child's paternity - although Genghis fiercely contended that Jochi was his son. Temüjin became blood brother (anda) with Jamuka and thus the two made a vow to be faithful to each other for eternity.

[edit]
His family
Genghis was related through his father to Qabul Khan, Ambaghai and Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation under Jin Dynasty patronage until the Jin switched their support to the Tatars in 1161 and destroyed Qutula Khan. Genghis' father, Yesugei, khan of the Borjigin, and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula Khan, emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars, in turn, grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin moved their support from the Tatars to the Kerait.

Temüjin had four siblings (three brothers and a sister):

Khasar (or Qasar) (brother)
Khajiun (brother)
Temüge (brother)
Temülen (or Temulin) (sister)
Genghis Khan's empress was Borte, his childhood friend in whose family's care his father left Temüjin when he was 9; she bore him four sons:

Jochi (1185–1227) (paternity contested-see below)
Chagatai (?—1241)
Ögedei (?—1241)
Tolui (1190–1232)
As noted, the parentage of the first son, Jochi, was always a question, though it was never officially raised by order of his father. His mother had been kidnapped and possibly raped, and though rescued, bore Jochi 9 months later. All four sons participated in the Mongol's campaigns, and eventually became Khans of different Khanates after Genghis died, but it was Ögedei who was proclaimed the Khagan, the "Khan of Khans", or "Great Khan" and inherited Genghis Khan's mantle. Genghis Khan had many other empresses and concubines. More than 500 women were spread out into four camps. Borte was the leader of the first camp and she was recognized as the high empress. These four camps also served as Genghis Khan's court.

[edit]
Uniting the Central Asian confederations

Eurasia in c. 1200. including Naimans, Merkits, Uighurs, Mongols, and KeraitsThe main opponent of the Mongols by around c. 1100 were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north and the Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin and his advisors had united together the Mongol confederation only. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following of his code of laws, the Yasa code, he promised civilians and fighters wealth from future possible battle.

Temujin began his slow ascent to power by allying himself with his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother). Temujin's ally was Toghrul, Khan of the Kerait and better known by the Chinese title Wang Khan which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. Temüjin was adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against the Tatars (1202) and other various tribes. This led to jealousy on the part of Senggum, Wang's former heir, who planned to assassinate Temüjin. Temüjin learnt of Senggum's intentions, eventually defeated him and his loyalists. Toghrul possibly feared the increasing power of Temüjin among the Mongol populace and adopted an obstinate attitude towards collaboration. One of the ruptures later between Toghrul and Temüjin was the refusal of Toghrul to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, which signified disrespect in the Mongol culture. This act probably led to the split and the prelude of the war between both factions. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuka, Temüjin's blood brother or anda, and when the confrontation took place, the internal divisions between Toghrul and Jamuka, as well as the desertion of many clans that fought on their side to the cause of Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. This paved the way for the fall and extinction of the Kerait tribe.

The next threat that directly competed with Temüjin was the Naimans, with whom Jamuka and his followers had taken refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again did voluntarily side with Temüjin. In 1201, a Khuriltai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan, universal ruler, a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuka, including the well-known Subutai, Jelme's younger brother, and Qubilai. After several battles, Jamuka was finally captured in 1206 after several shepherds kidnapped him and turned him over to Temüjin.

Temüjin offered his friendship again to Jamuka and asked him to turn to his side. Jamuka refused the generous offer and asked for a noble death, which was granted to him. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with Naimans were defeated by Subedei, member of the personal guard of Temüjin who would later become one of the greatest commanders in the service of the Khan. The defeat of the Naimans left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains. All these confederations were united and became the Mongols and with the Yassa code became the Mongol Empire.

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From Temüjin to Genghis Khan
Temüjin managed to unite all the Central Asian confederations under a single system by 1206, using his personal charisma, hard effort and strong will. It was a monumental feature for the Mongols, who had a long history of internecine dispute and economic hardship between each other and by dynasties and empires in China. At a Kurultai, a council of Mongol chiefs he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the title Genghis Khan. The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father. Therefore this unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes.

See also: Mongols before Chinggis Khan and Mongols
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Military campaigns
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First war with Western Xia
The Mongol federation created by Temüjin in 1206 was bordered to the south by the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, who then ruled North China, and to the west by the Xia. Temüjin organized his people and his state to prepare for future battle with the Western Xia that was closer to the Mongol border.

As well, the Jurchen had grown uncomfortable with the newly-unified Mongols for the first time. It may be that some trade routes ran through Mongol territory, and they might have feared the Mongols eventually would restrict the supply of goods coming from the Silk Road. On the other hand, Genghis Khan also was eager to take revenge against the Jurchen for their long subjugation of the Mongols. For example, the Jurchen were known to stir up conflicts between Mongol tribes and had even executed some Mongol Khans.

Eventually, Genghis Khan led his army against Western Xia and conquered it, despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities. By 1209, the Tangut emperor acknowledged Genghis as overlord.

In 1211, Genghis set about bringing the Nuzhen (the founders of the Jin Dynasty) completely under his dominion. The Mongol army crossed the Great Wall of China in 1213, and in 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Jin Emperor Xuan Zong to move his capital south to Kaifeng. A move which the Emporer regretted.

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Conquest of the Kara-Khitan Khanate
Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman tribe, had fled west and usurped the Khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay), the western allies who had decided to side with Genghis. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Tangut and the Rurzhen. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (roughly 20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under a brilliant young general, Jebe (known as "The Arrow").

An internal revolt against Kuchlug was incited by Mongol agents, leaving the Naiman forces open for Jebe to overrun the country; Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar. He was captured and executed, and Kara-Khitan was annexed by Genghis.

By 1218, the Mongol Empire extended as far west as Lake Balkhash and it adjoined Khwarezmia, a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea in the west and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south.

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Invasion of Khwarezmid Empire
After the defeat of the Kara-Khitais, the extensive Mongol Empire had a border with the Muslim state of Khwarezmia, governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial partner, and sent a 500-man caravan to officially establish trade ties with Khwarezmia. However Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravan and murder of its members. Ghenghis Khan then sent a second group of ambassadors to meet the Shah himself. The shah had all the men shaved and all but one beheaded before sending them back to Genghis Khan. This was seen as an attack on Khan himself.

This led Genghis Khan to attack the Khwarezmian Empire. They crossed the Tienshan mountians, coming into the shah's empire. Tired and exhausted from the journey, the Mongols still won their first victory against the Khwarezmia army.

After compiling information from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the Northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the Southeast part of Khwarzemia to form, with the first division, a pincer attack on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction.

The Shah's army were split by diverse internal disquisitions, and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities -- this fragmentation was decisive in Khwarezmia's defeats. The Shah's fearful attitude towards the Mongol army also did not help his army, and Genghis Khan and his generals succeeded in destroying Khwarizm.

The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Once he had conquered the city, Genghis killed many of the inhabitants, and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for the insult. According to stories, Khan diverted a river of Ala ad-Din Muhammad II of Khwarezm's birthplace, erasing it off the map. The Mongol's conquest of the capital was nothing short of brutal. The bodies of citizens and soldiers filled the trenches surrounding the city, allowing the Mongols to enter. They raped, pillaged and plundered homes and temples.

In the end, the Shah fled rather than surrender. Geghis Khan charged Subatai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men (this lead to what has become Subatai's Charge). The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire.

By 1220 the Khwarezmid Empire was eradicated. After Samarkand fell, Bujara became the capital of Jorezm, while two Mongol generals advanced on other cities to the north and the south. Jorezm, the heir of Shah Jalal Al-Din and a brilliant strategist who was supported enough by the town, battled the Mongols several times with his father's armies. However, internal disputes once again split his forces apart, and Jorezm was forced to flee Bujara after a devastating defeat.

Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China. The Mongol armies then split into two component forces. Genghis led a division on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India, while another contingent, led by his generals Jebe and Subedei, marched through the Caucasus and Russia. Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged settlements and defeated any armies they met that did not acknowledge Genghis as the rightful leader of the world. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire.

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The defeat of the Kievan Rus
While Genghis gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia, a detached force of 20,000 troops, commanded by Jebe and Subutai, pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols destroyed Georgian crusaders, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Kaffa in Crimea, and stayed the winter near the Black Sea.

Heading home, Mongols assaulted the Kipchaks and were intercepted by the allied troops of Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev, along with about 80,000 Kievan Rus'. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, the Mongols defeated the larger Kievan force, capturing and killing six princes, including Mstislav of Kiev.

Genghis Khan recalled the forces back to the Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. This famous cavalry expedition of Subutai and Jebe, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating every single army in their path, remains unparalleled to this day.

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Second war with Western Xia and Jin Dynasty

Song China (red), Jin Empire (yellow), Dali (purple) and the Tangut Empire in 1142.The Mongol Empire campaigned six times against the Tanguts (1202, 1207, 1209-1210, 1211-1213, 1214-1219 and 1225-1226). The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid Empire. While Genghis was busy with the campaign in Persia against the Khwarezmid Empire, Tangut and Jin formed an alliance against the Mongols. In retaliation, Genghis prepared for the last war against the Tanguts and their alliance.

In 1226, Genghis began to attack the Tanguts. In February, he took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou, and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan (Helan means "great horse" in the northern dialect, shan means "mountain"). The Tangut armies were soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory.

In 1227, Genghis attacked the Tangut capital, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu in February, Xining province and Xindu-fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) for shelter from the severe summer.

The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227, after having ruled for 189 years, beginning in 1038. Tired of the constant betrayal of Tanguts, Genghis executed the emperor and his family. By this time, his advancing age had led Genghis to make preparations for his death.

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Mongol Empire

Mongol Empire in 1300-1400Main article: Mongol Empire
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Politics and economics
Main article: Organization of state under Genghis Khan
The Mongol Empire was governed by civilian and military code, called the Yassa code.

An interesting aspect of Mongol Empire was it did not emphasize the importance of biological and cultural ethnicity and race among nomadic groups. The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was therefore one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life, including Turks, Mongols, Arabs, and others.

There were to some degree ideals such as meritocracy among the Mongols and allied nomadic people in military and civilian life. There were tax exemptions for intellectuals like teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance to a large degree because it was generally indifferent to belief. The exception was when religious groups challenged the state. Those Ismaili Muslims that resisted the Mongols were exterminated.

The Mongol Empire linked together the previously fractured Silk Road states under one system and became somewhat open to trade and cultural exchange. However, the Mongol conquests did lead to a collapse of many of the ancient trading cities of Central Asia that resisted invasion. Taxes were also heavy and conquered people were used as forced labor in those regions.

Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women [1]; however, there is no contemporary evidence of this or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Modern scholars refer to a theoretical policy of encouraging trade and communication as the concept of Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace).

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Military
Main article: Military advances of Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan made advances in military disciplines, such as mobility, psychological warfare, intelligence, military autonomy, and tactics.

Genghis Khan built a highly efficient army with remarkable discipline, dedication, loyalty and military intelligence. More specifically, the Mongol armies were known for their strict discipline, good weapons and the mobility when mounted on their fast and tough horses. Also he refused to divide his troops into different ethnic units, instead creating a sense of unity, and he punished even small infractions against discipline severely. He also divided his armies into a number of smaller groups based on the decimal system, taking advantage of the superb mobility of his mounted archers to attack their enemies on several fronts simultaneously. Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals and gave them free rein in battles and wars. Muqali, a trusted general, was given command over Mongol forces over Jin while Genghis Khan was fighting in central Asia, and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to use any means to defeat the Russians.

Another important aspect in the military organization of Genghis Khan is the communications and supply route or Yam, to which he himself dedicated a special attention.

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Notable military generals in Mongol military
Military generals and strategists who served Genghis Khan, such as Subutai and Jebe, played considerable roles in the practicalities of the war, using a hands-on approach. These generals were purely chosen as part of a meritocracy, as none of them were from the direct family line of Genghis. Genghis Khan did not as a general rule trust his relatives to command large number of troops for larger campaigns, and so he did not allow them to command significant numbers of soldiers.

Jebe - (nickname meaning "the Arrow"), was one of the four "dogs of war". After surrendering to Temujin, Jebe made several accomplishments, including destroying Kuchlug's Kara-Khitai and defeating the Kievan Rus' in several battles, expanding the Mongol Empire considerably.
Subutai - He was one of the four "dogs of war". One of the most prominent generals from the others, a brilliant strategist and good friend of Genghis Khan and his sons, he accompanied Jebe in his battles against Kara-Khitai and the Kievan Rus' and in the conquest of eastern and central Europe after Genghis Khan with his grandson Batu Khan.
Muqali - Joined before the defeat of Jamuqa. One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan. Made the general of left-wing tumen. During Genghis Khan's conquest of Khwarezmid Empire, Muqali was the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China.
Borchu - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Borchu joined as one of the earliest generals of Genghis Khan. He was made the general of right-wing tumen and was revered as a tough commander with great leadership skills.
Borokhul - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Borokhul defected from Jamuqa.
Chilaun - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Chilaun's family helped Temujin when he was captured by the Tai'chuids.
Qubilai - He was one of the four "dogs of war".
Jelme - Another early general of Genghis Khan. He was one of the four "dogs of war" and was the commander of the personal guard of Genghis Khan.
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Division of the Empire into Khanates

The division of the Mongol Empire into the four khanatesBefore his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and grandsons into several Khanates. These Khanates were sub territories and the Khans of these Khanates were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was, initially, Ögedei Khan.

Following are the Khanates in the way in which Genghis Khan assigned after his death:

Empire of the Great Khan (China) - Great Khan Ögedei Khan
Il-Khanate - Hulegu Khan
Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakhorum) - Tolui Khan
Chagadai Khanate - Chagatai Khan
Blue Horde and White Horde (combined into the Golden Horde) - Batu Khan and Orda Khan
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After Genghis Khan
The empire's expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in 1227 — indeed, it was under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan that the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that would last until 1279 and that would conclude with the Mongols' successful conquest of China. Then, in the late 1230s, the Mongols under Batu Khan started the Mongol invasion of Europe and Russia, reducing most of its principalities to vassalage, and pressed on into Central Europe. In 1241 Mongols under Subedei and Batu Khan defeated the last Polish-German and Hungarian armies at the Battle of Legnica and the Battle of Mohi. During the 1250s, Genghis's grandson Hulegu Khan, operating from the Mongol base in Persia, destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad and destroyed the cult of the Assassins, moving into Palestine towards Egypt.


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Death and burial

Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis' deathDuring his last campaign with the Tangut Empire during which Genghis Khan was fighting with the Khwarezmid Empire, Genghis Khan died on August 18, 1227. The reason for his death is uncertain. Many assume he fell off his horse, due to old age and physical fatigue; some contemporary observers cited prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts. There are persistent folktales that a Tangut princess, to avenge her people and prevent her rape, castrated him with a hidden knife and that he never recovered.

It is alleged that Genghis asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Hentiy aymag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon river. According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path, to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. On October 6, 2004, "Genghis Khan's palace" was allegedly discovered, and that may make it possible to find his burial site. Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (The same manner of burial of Sumerian folk hero Gilgamesh.) Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, over which trees were then planted. The burial site remains undiscovered.

Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men. 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons, and Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. This was done because by tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Four of his sons, beside Tolui, received armies of 4000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3000 men each.

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Genghis Khan's personality
It is not entirely clear what Genghis Khan's personality was truly like, but his personality and character were doubtless molded by the many hardships he faced when he was young, and in unifying the Mongol nation. Genghis appeared to fully embrace the Mongol people's nomadic way of life, and did not try to change their customs or beliefs. As he aged, he seemed to become increasingly aware of the consequences of numerous victories and expansion of the Mongol Empire, including the possibility that succeeding generations might choose to live a sedentary lifestyle. According to quotations attributed to him in his later years, he urged future leaders to follow the Yasa teachings, and to refrain from surrounding themselves with wealth and pleasure.

He seemed to value honesty and loyalty highly from his subjects. Genghis Khan put a lot of trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subudei and gave them free rein in battles and allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaign on their own very far away from the Mongol Empire capital Kharakhorum. Yet traditional accounts of his life are marked by a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamuka and Wang Khan, problems with the most important Shaman, because of the obstinate attitude to collaborate with Genghis Khan once he started to become powerful, and at the end of his life he was said to have been considering pre-emptive strike against his son Batu whom he believed was acting stubborn against his authority in northern Asia. There is little reason to believe all of these were genuine. This may suggest a degree of paranoia and carefulness in Genghis Khan's personality based on his earlier experiences. He seem to have very little tolerance for resistance against his rule and this rule persisted later on for later rulers like Ogedei Khan, Kublai Khan, etc. behaving the same way.

His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals. He seemed to be a quick study, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered. The Secret History makes it clear he was not physically courageous and even says he was afraid of dogs. Many stories and legends claim that Genghis Khan always was in the front in battles but these may not be historically accurate.

The chronicler Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani left a description of Genghis Khan, written when the Khan was in his later years:

[Genghis Khan was] a man of tall stature, of vigorous build, robust in body, the hair on his face scanty and turned white, with cat's eyes, possessed of dedicated energy, discernment, genius, and understanding, awe-striking, a butcher, just, resolute, an overthrower of enemies, intrepid, sanguinary, and cruel.

A rare insight into Genghis Khan's perspective of himself was recorded in a letter to the Taoist monk Cha'ng Ch'un. The letter was presumably not written by Genghis Khan himself, as tradition states that he was illiterate, but rather, more plausibly, recorded by one of his Chinese ministers. A passage from the letter:

Heaven has abandoned China owing to its haughtiness and extravagant luxury. But I, living in the northern wilderness, have not inordinate passions. I hate luxury and exercise moderation. I have only one coat and one food. I eat the same food and am dressed in the same tatters as my humble herdsmen. I consider the people my children, and take an interest in talented men as if they were my brothers. We always agree in our principles, and we are always united by mutual affection. At military exercises I am always in front, and in time of battle am never behind. In the space of seven years I have succeeded in accomplishing a great work, and uniting the whole world in one empire. (Bretschneider)

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Perceptions of Genghis Khan
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Genghis Khan as a hero
Negative views of Genghis Khan are very persistent, but historians and scientists are looking into positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests. Genghis Khan, successor Khans and Mongols are credited to bringing the Silk Route under one cohesive political environment. Theoretically this allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia by expanding the horizon of all three areas. Genghis Khan is widely becoming known for his indifference to religious intolerance among his populace and also his institution of meritocracy in his rule like the military.

The Chinese to this day have mixed feelings towards Genghis: although his successors completely conquered China, there still is much artwork and literature praising him as a "great military" leader. Genghis Khan is ranked #29 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential people in history. An article that appeared in the Washington Post on December 31, 1995 selected Genghis Khan as "Man of the Millenium". There were some that later claimed descent from Genghis Khan like Timur and therefore Babur that were successful conquerors in their own right.

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In Mongolia

Mongolia todayGenghis Khan is presently considered a historic and very significant (military) leader in Mongolian history, specifically credited for paving the way for the nation of Mongolia. There is concern about the negative bias and exaggeration in historical records about him, which emphasize his assaults, barbarism, and butchery while underplaying his positives such as founding the Mongol nation. There is a feeling that his military and administrative genius is undervalued, as is his undisputed status as the conqueror of one of the largest empires in history. While his killing and conquests are not particularly praised, his founding of Mongol nation is one of his most historical achievements that continues until today.

In the early 1990s, when Mongolia separated from communism and the Russian bloc, Genghis became a symbol of the free nation's identity, and there are many products, addresses and places named after him. Some Mongols call Mongolia, "Genghis Khan's Mongolia" or "Genghis' nation." For example the main international airport, Chinggis Khaan International Airport in Ulan Bator, Mongolia is named after him.

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Consequences of Mongol conquest
There are many differing views on the amount of destruction Genghis Khan and his armies caused. The peoples who suffered the most during Genghis Khan's conquests, like the Persians and the Chinese, usually stress the negative aspects of the conquest and some modern scholars argue that their historians exaggerate the numbers of deaths. [citation needed]

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On civilians
Genghis Khan generally preferred to offer opponents the chance to submit to his rule without a fight, but was merciless if he encountered any resistance. In such cases he would not give an alternative and would mercilessly slaughter the population of the resisting cities, leaving only the skilled engineers, artists, spies and any troops who submitted and incorporating them in the Mongol system to expand their manpower, while absorbing their technology and skill as needed. There also were instances of mass slaughters even where there was no resistance, especially in Northern China where the vast majority of the population had long histories of accepting nomadic rulers. Genghis Khan's conquests were widely characterized by wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale and radical changes in the demographics of Asia by many ancient sources. For example, over much of Central Asia Indo-European Persian-speakers were replaced by Turkic speakers. According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid al-Din, the Mongols killed over 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China suffered a drastic decline in population during 13th and 14th century. For instance, before the Mongol invasion, a unified China had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the complete conquest in 1279, the census in 1300 showed it to have roughly 60 million people. [citation needed] How many of these deaths were attributable directly to Genghis Khan and his forces is unclear as are the highly generalized numbers themselves.

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On property and cultural treasures
His campaigns in Northern China, Central Asia and the Middle East caused massive property destruction for those that resisted his invasion, however there are no exact factual numbers available at this time. For example, the cities of Ray and Tus, the two largest and most populous cities in Iran at the time, both centers of literature, culture, trade and commerce, were completely destroyed by order of Genghis Khan. Nishapur, Merv and Samarkand suffered similar destruction. There is a noticable lack of Chinese literature that has survived from the Jin dynasty due to the Mongol conquests.

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Genetic argument
Authors of a paper published in 2003 identified a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about 8% of the men (or about 0.5% of the world total) in a large region of Asia stretching from the Pacific to the Caspian Sea. The pattern of variation within the lineage suggested that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago, which indicates a spread too rapid to have occurred by chance, and must therefore be the result of selection. The authors proposed that the lineage is carried by likely male-line descendents of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread not through any biological advantage, but through social selection resulting from their behavior. [citation needed]

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Name and title
There are many theories for the origins of Temujin's title; this uncertainty is fueled by the fact that later members of the Mongol Empire associated the name with the Mongol word for strength, "ching", though this does not fit the etymology. One theory about the etymology suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and Turkish word tenggiz, meaning "ocean," "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". Lake Baikal and ocean were called tenggiz by the Mongols. However it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggiz they could have said (and written) "Tenggiz Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese: 正, pron. "jung" in English) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which in mediaeval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that contemporary Mongols would have pronounced the word more like "Chinggis". Chingis Khan is the spelling used by the modern Republic of Mongolia. See Lister and Ratchnevsky, referenced below, for further reading.

The name "Temujin" is believed to derive from the Mongolian word temur, meaning iron. This name would imply skill as a blacksmith, and like any nomad of the time he was familiar, at least partially, with the working of iron and steel for horse-shoeing and weaponry. More likely, as there exists no evidence that has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name indicated an implied lineage in a family known for blacksmiths. The latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temulin and Temuge, which are derived from the same root word. According to legend, Temujin was named after one of the more powerful chiefs of a rival tribe which his father, Yesükhei, had recently defeated.

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Short timeline
c. 1155-1167 - Temujin born in Hentiy, Mongolia.
c. 1171 - Temujin's father Yesükhei poisoned by the Tatars, leaving him and his family destitute
c. 1184 - Temujin's wife Borte kidnapped by Merkits; calls on blood brother Jamuka and Wang Khan for aid, and they rescued her.
c. 1185 - First son Jochi born, leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis' children, because he was born soon after Borte's rescue from the Merkits.
1190' - Temujin unites the Mongol tribes, becomes leader, and devises code of law Yassa.
1201 - Wins victory over Jamuka's Jadarans.
1202 - Adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against Tatars.
1203 - Wins victory over Wang Khan's Keraits.
1204 - Wins victory over Naimans (all these confederations are united and become the Mongols).
1206 - Temujin given the title Genghis Khan by his followers in Kurultai (around 40 years of age).
1207-1210 - Genghis leads operations against the Western Xia, which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western Xia ruler submits to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uighurs also submit peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire.
1211 - After Khuriltai, Genghis leads his armies against the Jin Dynasty that ruled northern China.
1219-1222 - Conquers Khwarezmid Empire.
1226 - Starts the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, being the second battle with the Western Xia.
1227 - Genghis Khan dies leading fight against Western Xia. How he died is uncertain.
[edit]
Notes
Note 1: Rashid al-Din asserts that Genghis Khan lived to the age of 72, placing his year of birth at 1155. The Yuanshi (元史, "History of the Yuan dynasty", not to be confused with the era name of the Han dynasty), records his year of birth as 1162. However, the Record of Successive Generations of Buddha (Lidai Fozu Tongzai) records the Genghis Khan died at the age of 60. According to Ratchnevsky, accepting a birth in 1155 would render Genghis Khan a father only at the age of 30, and would imply that at the ripe age of 72 he personally commanded the expedition against the Tanguts. Also, according to the Altan Tobci, Genghis Khan's sister, Temulin, was nine years younger than he; but the Secret History relates that Temulin was an infant during the attack by the Merkits, during which Genghis Khan would have been 18, had he been born in 1155. Zhao Hong reports in his travelogue that the Mongols he questioned did not and had never known their ages.

[edit]
External links
History: Fiction or Science? New Chronology of the World History.
Amazon.com: Books: Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World
Genghis Khan and the Mongols
Genghis Khan Movie Mongol at IMDb
Welcome to The Realm of the Mongols
Parts of this biography were taken from the Area Handbook series at the Library of Congress
Coverage of Temujin's Earlier Years
Estimates of Mongol warfare casualties
Genghis Khan on the Web (directory of some 250 resources)
Mongol Arms
Information about Mongolia - A Full section about Mongolian History and Genghis Khan and more than 100 pictures of a Genghis's Movie
LeaderValues
‘Ala’ al-Din ‘Ata Malik Juvayni (A History of the World-Conqueror Ghengis Genghis Khan, rashid-ad-din-juwayni ‘Ala’ al-Din ‘Ata Malik Juvayni)
iExplore.com: The search for the missing tomb of Genghis Khan
Genealogy of Genghis Khan's Ancestors from the "Generation Letter".
[edit]
References
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Genghis KhanWeatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World (New York : Crown, 2004) ISBN 0609610627.
Kennedy, Hugh. Mongols, Huns & Vikings (London : Cassell, 2002) ISBN 0304352926.
Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Genghis Khan and the Mongols. URL accessed on June 30, 2005.
Man, John. Genghis Khan : Life, Death and Resurrection (London; New York : Bantam Press, 2004) ISBN 0593050444.
Lister, R. P. Genghis Khan (Lanham, Md. : Cooper Square Press, 2000 [c1969]) ISBN 0815410522.
Mongol Arms. Mongol Arms. URL accessed on June 24, 2003.
Zerjal, Tatiana, with Yali Xue, Giorgio Bertorelle, R. Spencer Wells, Weidong Bao, Suling Zhu, Raheel Qamar, Qasim Ayub, Aisha Mohyuddin, Songbin Fu, Pu Li, Nadira Yuldasheva, Ruslan Ruzibakiev, Jiujin Xu, Qunfang Shu, Ruofu Du, Huanming Yang, Matthew E. Hurles, Elizabeth Robinson, Tudevdagva GerelsaiGenghis Khan, Bumbein Dashnyam, S. Qasim Mehdi, and Chris Tyler-Smith. "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols", in The American Journal of Human Genetics 72:718-721 (2003).
Heirs to Discord: The Supratribal Aspirations of Jamuqa, Toghrul, and Temüjin
Ratchnevsky, Paul. Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy [Čingis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken] (Oxford, UK ; Cambridge, Mass., USA : B. Blackwell, 1992, c1991) tr. & ed. Thomas Nivison Haining, ISBN 0631167854.
Bretschneider, Emilii (19--). Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources, London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., ltd.. ISBN 8121510031.
Le Monde Diplomatique: "The destruction began with the genocide of the Tangut people of the Western Xia empire in northwest China. The Mongols razed many prosperous towns and reduced provinces to arid steppes, killing as they passed through: eventually they slaughtered some 600,000 Tanguts."[3]
History of the Mongol Conquests, JJ Saunders, U. Pennsylvania Press, 1972: "The cold and deliberate genocide practiced by the Mongols, which has no parallel save that of the ancient Assyrians and the modern Nazis, perhaps arose from mixed motives of military advantage and superstitious fears..." From the really cool Google Print feature.
Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review edited by Israel W Charney, 1994, lists the invasion of Afghanistan by Genghis as a genocide
Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century by Benjamin A Valentino, gives the Mongols as one of the earliest examples
[edit]
Primary Sources
Juvaynī, Alā al-Dīn Atā Malik, 1226-1283. Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror [Tarīkh-i jahāngushā. English] (Seattle : UWashington Press, 1997) tr. John Andrew Boyle, ISBN 0295976543.
The Secret History of the Mongols (Leiden; Boston : Brill, 2004) tr. Igor De Rachewiltz, Brill's Inner Asian Library. v.7, ISBN 9004131590.
A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World [Jami al-Tawarikh] (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1995) The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII, ed. Sheila S. Blair, ISBN 019727627X.
Tabib, Rashid al-Din. The Successors of Genghis Khan (New York : Columbia University Press, 1971) tr. from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle, [extracts from Jami’ Al-Tawarikh], UNESCO collection of representative works: Persian heritage series, ISBN 0231033516.



[edit]
Further reading
Cable, Mildred and Francesca French. The Gobi Desert (London : Landsborough Publications, 1943).
Man, John. Gobi : Tracking the Desert (London : Weidenfield & Nicolson, 1997) hardbound; (London : Weidenfield & Nicolson, 1998) paperbound, ISBN 0753801612; (New Haven : Yale, 1999) hardbound.
Stewart, Stanley. In the Empire of Genghis Khan: A Journey among Nomads (London : Harper Collins, 2001) ISBN 0-00-653027-3.
History Channel's biography of Genghis Khan
Secret History of the Mongols: The Origin of Chingis Khan (expanded edition) (Boston : Cheng & Tsui Asian Culture Series, 1998) adapted by Paul Kahn, ISBN 0887272991.




Preceded by:
None Khan of Mongol Empire
1206–1227 Followed by:
Ögedei Khan

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan"

[chilli21]

Genghis Khan WAS a Mongol NEVER a Chinese,his family's reign in China has always been accurately recorded as YUAN Dynasty.

it's ok, no one here is claiming genghis khan a chinese. even if the ccp claims him to be chinese for whatever reasons, everyone in this world knows he's not just. (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/icon_wink.gif)

to anda: thanks for the info but um.....i think you misunderstood me. i'm not denying genghis khan is a hero. in my opinion, i do think he's a great conqueror and to some extent, he's even better than alexander. i was only saying that for many people, his name is less well-known than alexender. (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/icon_wink.gif)

[blob]

He may be horny, he may be ruthless, but he was still a legend (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/embarassedlaugh.gif)

[qlittlemon]

http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20060219/lf_af...an_060219214604

Are the Chinese trying to claim Genghis Khan as a Chinese guy?  -laugh2

Say it ain't so  -laugh2
It's like dejavu~

Here is one TRIVIAL QUESTION .... If a male Asian American is elected to the office of US presidency ... would you call him AMERICAN PRESIDENT or Oriental MAN ? -LAUGH2

[chilli21]

Today's Mongols are still in NOMADIC AGE,they don't have the big image promoting PR machine like Hollywood.

i don't think it has to with the age, i mean greece is not a rich country and has many problems also.

by the way, you can edit your post so you need to make 3 replies to the same person. (IMG:http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/style_emoticons/default/embarassedlaugh.gif)

This post has been edited by chilli21: Feb 21 2006, 12:58 AM